CONFEDERATE STATES OF AMERICA

Between Dec. 20, 1860, and Feb. 1, 1861, six southern states declared their withdrawal (secession) from the United States. On February 4, at Montgomery, Ala., they organized a separate and independent government called the Confederate States of America. The states that set up this government were South Carolina, Mississippi, Florida, Alabama, Georgia, and Louisiana. A seventh state, Texas, was admitted to the confederation on March 2. Jefferson Davis of Mississippi was elected president and Alexander H. Stephens of Georgia, vice-president.

The preamble of the new Confederate constitution declared that each state was "acting in its sovereign and independent character. " This right had been asserted at earlier periods in American history. Never before, however, had the issue been charged with the emotional factor of the abolition of black slavery.

The constitution of the Confederate States reflected the then prevailing belief in the South that slavery was the only practicable status for the large black population of that section. It forbade any legislation impairing the institution of slavery though it did prohibit foreign slave trade.

The remainder of the constitution was largely based on that of the union from which the states of the lower South were withdrawing. Among the modifications was a six-year term for the president, who could not succeed himself. The president was, in addition, given the right to veto separate items of appropriation bills. Congress was prohibited from adopting a protective tariff on imports.

he Three Branches of Government

The legislative branch of the government was the Confederate Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Its work was lessened by adopting all United States statutes consistent with the Confederate constitution. On the other hand it had to deal with the difficult problems of war. Within the Congress there were no recognized party divisions. Members tended to fall into administration and anti-administration groups on personal grounds.

The judicial system of the Confederacy consisted chiefly of district courts located in the old federal judicial districts. The ill-defined jurisdiction of circuit courts was abolished (a step followed half a century later by the United States). Provision was made for a supreme court, but it was never organized because of bitter controversies between members of Congress over its jurisdiction and powers.

The executive branch consisted of Departments of State, Treasury, War, Navy, Justice, and the Post Office. The heads of these departments made up the president's Cabinet. Fourteen men held Cabinet offices. In order of their terms of service they were: secretary of state, Robert Toombs, R.M.T. Hunter, and J.P. Benjamin; secretary of the treasury, C.G. Memminger, G.A. Trenholm; secretary of war, L.P. Walker, J.P. Benjamin, G.W. Randolph, James A. Seddon, John C. Breckinridge; secretary of the navy, Stephen R. Mallory; attorney general, J.P. Benjamin, Thomas Bragg, Thomas H. Watts, and George Davis; postmaster general, John H. Reagan.

The Three Branches of Government

The legislative branch of the government was the Confederate Congress, consisting of a Senate and a House of Representatives. Its work was lessened by adopting all United States statutes consistent with the Confederate constitution. On the other hand it had to deal with the difficult problems of war. Within the Congress there were no recognized party divisions. Members tended to fall into administration and anti-administration groups on personal grounds.

The judicial system of the Confederacy consisted chiefly of district courts located in the old federal judicial districts. The ill-defined jurisdiction of circuit courts was abolished (a step followed half a century later by the United States). Provision was made for a supreme court, but it was never organized because of bitter controversies between members of Congress over its jurisdiction and powers.

The executive branch consisted of Departments of State, Treasury, War, Navy, Justice, and the Post Office. The heads of these departments made up the president's Cabinet. Fourteen men held Cabinet offices. In order of their terms of service they were: secretary of state, Robert Toombs, R.M.T. Hunter, and J.P. Benjamin; secretary of the treasury, C.G. Memminger, G.A. Trenholm; secretary of war, L.P. Walker, J.P. Benjamin, G.W. Randolph, James A. Seddon, John C. Breckinridge; secretary of the navy, Stephen R. Mallory; attorney general, J.P. Benjamin, Thomas Bragg, Thomas H. Watts, and George Davis; postmaster general, John H. Reagan.

Four More States Join the Confederacy

The election of Abraham Lincoln as president of the United States had touched off the series of secessions. By the time Lincoln took office four months later, the seceding states had taken possession of most of the forts and other public property of the United States lying within their borders. In Charleston Harbor, however, Fort Sumter still garrisoned United States troops. The Montgomery government ordered its forces at Charleston to fire on and reduce Fort Sumter. The bombardment began on April 12, 1861; the fort was surrendered on April 14.

On April 15 President Lincoln called for troops to be used against the seceding states. Two days later Virginia, caught between the warring states and forced to a choice, took its first step toward secession. It was followed in turn by Arkansas, North Carolina, and finally (on June 24) by Tennessee.

Upon Virginia's invitation, the capital of the new nation was moved to Richmond in May and June 1861. The number of stars in the Confederate flag, originally seven, was increased to 13 in recognition of member states plus Kentucky and Missouri. Neither of these two states seceded, though both sent representatives to the Confederate Congress.

The war that began in 1861 continued for almost four years. The 11 Confederate States had a total population of about 9 million, of whom some 3.5 million were slaves; the 23 states remaining in the union had a population of about 23 million. The difference in resources was even greater. Most of the industrial power was in the Union states, which had the further advantage of overwhelming naval strength. This sea power was effectively used to blockade Southern ports.

Some advantages did lie with the Confederacy. It stood on the defensive, not seeking to conquer the Union states but only to resist efforts to occupy the South. It operated on interior lines so that, even though its railroads were less in extent and in capacity than those of the North, it was able to shift troops from one theater of action to another. It had the handicap of its own emphasis on the rights and independence of its individual states. Several states asserted these rights at such times and in such ways as to weaken the general effort of the Confederacy.

First Three Years of the War

In the beginning of the struggle, both sides relied on short-term volunteers--the Union for 90 days, the Confederates for one year. During the first 12 months of the war, despite the dramatic victory of the first battle of Manassas, or Bull Run, things went badly for the Confederacy.

Missouri was lost to the South as was northern Arkansas, more than half of Tennessee, and important positions on the seacoasts. A Union fleet held the mouth of the Mississippi River and threatened New Orleans. In this state of affairs, the Confederacy adopted conscription, a course soon followed by the Congress of the United States.

The second year of the war opened with the loss of New Orleans and Memphis and with a Union army in sight of Richmond. The course of events was reversed, however, when Stonewall Jackson's brilliant campaign freed the Shenandoah Valley and Robert E. Lee took command of the newly named Army of Northern Virginia. Lee drove George B. McClellan from Richmond and, in a series of brilliant victories, threatened Washington and crossed the Potomac into Maryland. Meanwhile in the west, Gen. Braxton Bragg drove his Southern Army of Tennessee into Kentucky, almost to the Ohio River. He was compelled to withdraw after the battle of Perryville (Oct. 8, 1862). Earlier Lee had to leave Maryland after the battle at Sharpsburg, or Antietam, on September 16 and 17.

The battle of Antietam was enough of a Union victory to warrant President Lincoln's issuing his preliminary Emancipation Proclamation. It was to become effective on Jan. 1, 1863, and was to apply only to slaves in states still resisting Union arms at that time. More important it served to make the war a crusade against slavery as well as a conflict to preserve the Union. It thereby effectively ended any possibility of foreign intervention on the Confederate side.

During the remaining years the tide of war slowly turned against the Confederates. Lee's invasion of Pennsylvania ended in defeat at Gettysburg. The North gained control of the Mississippi River, cutting off the western South from the remainder of the Confederacy. The railroad lines connecting the central South with the eastern section were cut. In the Shenandoah Valley and elsewhere Union forces deliberately destroyed the South's facilities for producing war supplies.

The Southern government had started out with high hope of foreign support, particularly from Great Britain and France. To create an artificial scarcity of cotton abroad, the Confederate government prohibited its export in the early days of the war. Later they could not get it out in sufficient quantities because of the effective blockade. The Confederate States never gained diplomatic recognition as a nation. Europe's chief contribution was in the form of navy cruisers, such as the Alabama. These warships did much to disrupt Union seaborne commerce.

The Confederacy was never able to solve its financial problem. As a result the successive issues of Confederate paper money lost more and more purchasing power until they finally became of no value. Estimates of the amount of money printed by the Confederate government range between one and two billion dollars. To this should be added perhaps another half billion dollars of notes and fractional currency ("shinplasters") issued by states, banks, railroads, and other business organizations.

The End of the Confederacy

Late in 1864 it became apparent that the Confederacy had no chance to win the war. The fall of Atlanta was followed by the rout of General John B. Hood's Army of the Tennessee and the virtually unopposed march of General William T. Sherman to Savannah. Unsuccessful attempts were made to negotiate a peace with President Lincoln at Hampton Roads on Feb. 3, 1865. Three days later, President Davis appointed Robert E. Lee to the position of general in chief. In another six days Wilmington, the last Confederate port open to blockade runners, was closed by the fall of Fort Fisher.

Petersburg, Va., fell on April 2, 1865, and Richmond had to be evacuated. Although scattered fighting persisted in the Carolinas, in Texas, and on the high seas, the Confederate States of America could not survive after Lee's surrender at the Appomattox, Va., courthouse on April 9.

The Confederate States had to accept the reconstruction terms imposed upon them by the federal government, before being allowed back in the Union. Politically, the period of reconstruction was completed in 1877. Economically, the effects of the war lasted much longer.

Some Less Prominent Personalities of the Confederacy that history sometimes over looks.

Beauregard, Pierre Gustave Toutant (1818-93). Born near New Orleans on May 28, 1818. Graduated from West Point 1838. Served in Mexican War. Stationed in Louisiana until appointed superintendent of West Point. Served in that post for only one week in 1861. In February 1861 became brigadier general in Confederate Army. Ordered firing on Fort Sumter that began war. Served throughout war. Afterward was president of New Orleans, Jackson, and Mississippi Railway. Held several state offices in Louisiana. Wrote number of books on military affairs. Died in New Orleans on Feb. 20, 1893.

Benjamin, Judah P. (1811-84). Born on St. Thomas in the Virgin Islands on Aug. 6, 1811. Grew up in the United States. Became lawyer 1832 in Louisiana. An organizer of the Illinois Central Railroad. The first professing Jew elected to the U.S. Senate (in 1852 and 1858). Served as secretary of war in the Confederacy (1861-62) and secretary of state from 1862 to end of war. His urging that slaves be recruited into Confederate army enraged many Southerners. Escaped to England after the war and became a queen's counsel. Published `Treatise on the Law of Sale of Personal Property' in 1868. Died in Paris on May 6, 1884.

Booth, John Wilkes (1838-65). Born near Bel Air, Md., in 1838 into acting family. Son of Junius Brutus Booth and brother of Edwin Booth. Became outstanding Shakespearean actor. Served briefly under General Robert E. Lee. Failed in plot to kidnap President Abraham Lincoln to force ending war. Shortly after war assassinated Lincoln at Ford's Theater in Washington. Found hiding in barn near Bowling Green, Va. Killed--either suicide or by captors--on April 26, 1865.

Bragg, Braxton (1817-76). Born in Warrenton, N.C., on March 22, 1817. Graduated from West Point 1837. Served in Seminole Wars and Mexican War. Resigned army 1856. Recalled to serve as general in Confederate Army 1861. Fought in several engagements. Noted for victory at Chickamauga. Later military advisor to Jefferson Davis. Career of civil engineering after war. Died in Galveston, Tex., on Sept. 27, 1876.

Breckinridge, John C. (1821-75). Born near Lexington, Ky., on Jan. 21, 1821. Practiced law in Iowa and Kentucky. Served in Mexican War. Elected to House of Representatives 1851. Vice-president under President James Buchanan 1857-61. Nominated for presidency by splinter convention of Democrats 1860. Joined Confederacy late 1861. Served as general throughout war until appointed Jefferson Davis' secretary of war February 1865. Fled to England after war. Returned 1868 to Lexington, Ky., where he died on May 17, 1875.

Maury, Matthew Fontaine (1806-73). Born on Jan. 14, 1806, near Fredericksburg, Va. Became naval officer and widely respected oceanographer. Joined navy 1825. Published `A New Theoretical and Practical Treatise on Navigation' 1836. Appointed superintendent of navy's Depot of Charts and Instruments 1842. His `Physical Geography of the Sea and Its Meteorology' (1855) was first book on modern oceanography. Commissioned commander in Confederate navy 1861. Supervised coastal defenses. Became professor of meteorology at Virginia Military Institute 1868. Died in Lexington, Va., on Feb. 1, 1873.

Newsom, Ella King (1830?-1914?). Born in Brandon, Miss., probably in the early 1830s. Grew up in Arkansas, where she married Frank Newsom. A widow by the time the Civil War began. Volunteered services as a nurse. Called the "Florence Nightingale of the Confederacy." Served in the front lines in Kentucky. Operated hospitals in Memphis and Nashville. Remarried after the war but widowed ten years later. Worked at the Pension Office in Washington, D.C., where she died in about 1914.

Smith, Charles H. (1826-1903). Commonly known as Bill Arp, crackerbarrel philosopher of Old South. Born on June 15, 1826, in Lawrenceville, Ga. Began law practice 1849. Served in Confederate army. Started publishing satiric letters in Southern dialect directed against North 1861. Letters later collected into books, including `Bill Arp, So Called' and `Bill Arp's Scrap Book'. Elected to state senate 1865 and mayor of Rome, Ga., 1868. Died in Cartersville, Ga., on Aug. 24, 1903.

Timrod, Henry (1828-67). Born in Charleston, S.C., on Dec. 8, 1828. Studied at Franklin College (later the University of Georgia) for two years. During war became poet that spoke for Confederacy. First major work `Ethnogenesis' published 1861. Other notable poems were `Charleston' (1864) and `Ode' for Confederate dead (1867). Reduced to poverty by war and chronic ill health. Died on Oct. 6, 1867, in Columbia, S.C.